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Gyan Singh's Questions & Answers

in Computers & Technology, Computers & Accessories& Food & Drink

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What does mean Vitamin A ? ?

Asked by Anuj Kumar in Food & Drink at 9:15 AM on November 22, 2008

Ram Singh's Answer

Vitamin A is a generic term for a large number of related compounds. Retinol (an alcohol) and retinal (an aldehyde) are often referred to as preformed vitamin A. Retinal can be converted by the body to retinoic acid, the form of vitamin A known to affect gene transcription. Retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and related compounds are known as retinoids. Beta-carotene and other carotenoids that can be converted by the body into retinol are referred to as provitamin A carotenoids. Hundreds of different carotenoids are synthesized by plants, but only about 10% of them are provitamin A carotenoids (1). The following discussion will focus mainly on preformed vitamin A and retinoic acid.

Function

Vision

The retina is located at the back of the eye. When light passes through the lens, it is sensed by the retina and converted to a nerve impulse for interpretation by the brain. Retinol is transported to the retina via the circulation and accumulates in retinal pigment epithelial cells (diagram). Here, retinol is esterified to form a retinyl ester, which can be stored. When needed, retinyl esters are broken apart (hydrolyzed) and isomerized to form 11-cis-retinol, which can be oxidized to form 11-cis-retinal. 11-cis-retinal can be shuttled across the interphotoreceptor matrix to the rod cell where it binds to a protein called opsin to form the visual pigment, rhodopsin (also known as visual purple). Rod cells with rhodopsin can detect very small amounts of light, making them important for night vision. Absorption of a photon of light catalyzes the isomerization of 11-cis-retinal to all-trans-retinal and results in its release. This isomerization triggers a cascade of events, leading to the generation of an electrical signal to the optic nerve. The nerve impulse generated by the optic nerve is conveyed to the brain where it can be interpreted as vision. Once released, all-trans retinal is converted to all-trans-retinol, which can be transported across the interphotoreceptor matrix to the retinal epithelial cell, thereby completing the visual cycle (2). Inadequate retinol available to the retina results in impaired dark adaptation, known as "night blindness."

Regulation of gene expression

Retinoic acid (RA) and its isomers act as hormones to affect gene expression and thereby influence numerous physiological processes. All-trans-RA and 9-cis-RA are transported to the nucleus of the cell bound to cytoplasmic retinoic acid-binding proteins (CRABP). Within the nucleus, RA binds to retinoic acid receptor proteins (diagram). Specifically, all-trans-RA binds to retinoic acid receptors (RAR) and 9-cis-RA binds to retinoid X receptors (RXR). RAR and RXR form RAR/RXR heterodimers; these heterodimers bind to regulatory regions of the chromosome called retinoic acid response elements (RARE). A dimer is a complex of two protein molecules. Heterodimers are complexes of two different proteins, while homodimers are complexes of two of the same protein. Binding of all-trans-RA and 9-cis-RA to RAR and RXR respectively allows the complex to regulate the rate of gene transcription, thereby influencing the synthesis of certain proteins. RXR may also form heterodimers with thyroid hormone receptors (THR) or vitamin D receptors (VDR). In this way, vitamin A, thyroid hormone, and vitamin D may interact to influence gene transcription (3). Through the stimulation and inhibition of transcription of specific genes, retinoic acid plays a major role in cellular differentiation, the specialization of cells for highly specific physiological roles. Many of the physiological effects attributed to vitamin A appear to result from its role in cellular differentiation.

Immunity

Vit amin A is commonly known as the anti-infective vitamin, because it is required for normal functioning of the immune system (4). The skin and mucosal cells (cells that line the airways, digestive tract, and urinary tract) funct

Answered at 10:04 AM on November 22, 2008 | Read Comments [0]

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What does mean Vitamin C?

Asked by Anuj Kumar in Food & Drink at 9:15 AM on November 22, 2008

Ram Singh's Answer

Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species, a small number of other mammalian species (notably guinea pigs and bats), a few species of birds, and some fish.[1]

The presence of ascorbate is required for a range of essential metabolic reactions in all animals and plants. It is made internally by almost all organisms, humans being the most well-known exception. It is widely known as the vitamin whose deficiency causes scurvy in humans.[2][3][4] It is also widely used as a food additive.

The pharmacophore of vitamin C is the ascorbate ion. In living organisms, ascorbate is an anti-oxidant, since it protects the body against oxidative stress,[5] and is a cofactor in several vital enzymatic reactions.[6]

The uses and the daily requirement amounts of vitamin C are matters of on-going debate. People consuming diets rich in ascorbate from natural foods, such as fruits and vegetables, are healthier and have lower mortality from a number of chronic illnesses. However, a recent meta-analysis of 68 reliable antioxidant supplementation experiments involving a total of 232,606 individuals concluded that consuming additional ascorbate from supplements may not be as beneficial as thought.[7]

Vitamin C is purely the L-enantiomer of ascorbate; the opposite D-enantiomer has no physiological significance. Both forms are mirror images of the same molecular structure. When L-ascorbate, which is a strong reducing agent, carries out its reducing function, it is converted to its oxidized form, L-dehydroascorbate.[6] L-dehydroascorbate can then be reduced back to the active L-ascorbate form in the body by enzymes and glutathione.[8]

L-ascorbate is a weak sugar acid structurally related to glucose which naturally occurs either attached to a hydrogen ion, forming ascorbic acid, or to a metal ion, forming a mineral ascorbate.

[edit] Function

In humans, vitamin C is a highly effective antioxidant, acting to lessen oxidative stress; a substrate for ascorbate peroxidase[4]; and an enzyme cofactor for the biosynthesis of many important biochemicals. Vitamin C acts as an electron donor for eight different enzymes:[9]

* Three participate in collagen hydroxylation.[10][11][12] These reactions add hydroxyl groups to the amino acids proline or lysine in the collagen molecule (via prolyl hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase), thereby allowing the collagen molecule to assume its triple helix structure and making vitamin C essential to the development and maintenance of scar tissue, blood vessels, and cartilage.[13]

* Two are necessary for synthesis of carnitine.[14][15] Carnitine is essential for the transport of fatty acids into mitochondria for ATP generation.

* The remaining three have the following functions:
o dopamine beta hydroxylase participates in the biosynthesis of norepinephrine from dopamine.[16][17]
o another enzyme adds amide groups to peptide hormones, greatly increasing their stability.[18][19]
o one modulates tyrosine metabolism.[20][21]

Biological tissues that accumulate over 100 times the level in blood plasma of vitamin C are the adrenal glands, pituitary, thymus, corpus luteum, and retina.[22] Those with 10 to 50 times the concentration present in blood plasma include the brain, spleen, lung, testicle, lymph nodes, liver, thyroid, small intestinal mucosa, leukocytes, pancreas, kidney and salivary glands.

Answered at 10:03 AM on November 22, 2008 | Read Comments [0]

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What do You Know About Nuts?

Asked by Anuj Kumar in Food & Drink at 9:20 AM on November 22, 2008

Ram Singh's Answer

Nut is a general term for the large, dry, oily seeds or fruit of some plants. While a wide variety of dried seeds and fruits are called nuts, only a certain number of them are considered by biologists to be true nuts. Nuts are an important source of nutrients for both humans and wildlife.

All nuts are seeds, but not all seeds are nuts. Nuts are both the seed and the fruit, and cannot be separated. Seeds come from fruit, and can be removed from the fruit, like almonds, cashews and pistachios, which were once inside fruit.[citation

A nut in botany is a simple dry fruit with one seed (rarely two) in which the ovary wall becomes very hard (stony or woody) at maturity, and where the seed remains unattached or unfused with the ovary wall. Most nuts come from the pistils with inferior ovaries (see flower) and all are indehiscent (not opening at maturity). True nuts are produced, for example, by some plant families of the order Fagales.

Answered at 10:02 AM on November 22, 2008 | Read Comments [0]

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What does mean Almond in food?

Asked by Anuj Kumar in Food & Drink at 9:21 AM on November 22, 2008

Ram Singh's Answer

The Almond (Prunus dulcis, syn. Prunus amygdalus Batsch., Amygdalus communis L., Amygdalus dulcis Mill.) is a species of Prunus belonging to the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae; within Prunus, it is classified in the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated seed shell. An almond is also the seed of this tree. Botanically, the almond seed or fruit is not a true nut, but a drupe. In Jammu and Kashmir it is designated as the State tree of Kashmir[1]

The almond is native to the Fertile Crescent, probably Iran, extending from northwestern Saudi Arabia, north through western Jordan, Israel, old Palestine see British Mandate of Palestine, Lebanon, western Syria, to southern Turkey and also in Kashmir(Rafeeq Mir).[2] It is a small deciduous tree, growing to between 4 and 10 meters in height, with a trunk of up to 30 centimeters in diameter. The young shoots are green at first, becoming purplish[vague] where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their second year. The leaves are 1 cm long and 1.2–4 cm broad, with a serrated margin and a 2.5 cm petiole. The flowers are white or pale pink, 3–5 cm diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs before the leaves in early spring.[3][4]

The fruit is a drupe 3.5–6 cm long, with a downy outer coat. The outer covering or exocarp, (fleshy in other members of Prunus such as the plum and cherry), is instead a leathery grey-green coating called the hull, which contains inside a hard shell, and the edible seed, commonly called a nut in culinary terms. Generally, one seed is present, but occasionally there are two. In botanical terms, an almond is not a true nut. The reticulated hard woody shell (like the outside of a peach pit) surrounding the edible seed is called the endocarp. The fruit is mature in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering.[3][4]

[edit] Origin and history

The wild form of domesticated almond grows in parts of the Levant; almonds must first have been taken into cultivation in this region. The fruit of the wild forms contains the glycoside amygdalin, "which becomes transformed into deadly prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) after crushing, chewing, or any other injury to the seed."[5] Before cultivation and domestication occurred, wild almonds were harvested as food and doubtless were processed by leaching or roasting to remove their toxicity.[citation needed]
Unripe almond on tree

However, domesticated almonds are not toxic; Jared Diamond argues that a common genetic mutation causes an absence of glycoside amygdalin, and this mutant was grown by early farmers, "at first unintentionally in the garbage heaps and later intentionally in their orchards".[6] Zohary and Hopf believe that almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit-trees due to "the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed. Thus, in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend itself to propagation from suckers or from cuttings, it could have been domesticated even before the introduction of grafting".[5] Domesticated almonds appear in the Early Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC) of the Near East, or possibly a little earlier. A well-known archaeological example of almond is the fruits found in Tutankhamun's tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 BC), probably imported from the Levant.[5] The domesticated form can be found as far north as Iceland[7] although the official distribution of the plant in Europe shows the most northerly country to be Germany.[8]

Almond is called Lawz in Arabic and Baadaam in Hindi , Gujarati, Turkish, Urdu, Persian and Kashmiri.

Answered at 10:02 AM on November 22, 2008 | Read Comments [0]

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What does mean Cashew Nut in food?

Asked by Anuj Kumar in Food & Drink at 9:22 AM on November 22, 2008

Ram Singh's Answer

The cashew (Anacardium occidentale; syn. Anacardium curatellifolium A.St.-Hil.) is a tree in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The plant is native to northeastern Brazil. Its English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree, caju, which in turn derives from the indigenous Tupi name, acajú. In Indonesia it name as "Jambu Monyet", because the cashewnut looks like a monkey that hanging on something. It is now widely grown in tropical climates for its cashew "nuts" (see below) and cashew apples.
'Anacardium occidentale', from Koehler's 'Medicinal-Plants' (1887)
Cashew tree

It is a small evergreen tree growing to 10-12m (~32 ft) tall, with a short, often irregularly-shaped trunk. The leaves are spirally arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, 4 to 22 cm long and 2 to 15 cm broad, with a smooth margin. The flowers are produced in a panicle or corymb up to 26 cm long, each flower small, pale green at first then turning reddish, with five slender, acute petals 7 to 15 mm long.

What appears to be the fruit of the cashew tree is an oval or pear-shaped accessory fruit or false fruit that develops from the receptacle of the cashew flower. Called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as "marañón", it ripens into a yellow and/or red structure about 5–11 cm long. It is edible, and has a strong "sweet" smell and a sweet taste. The pulp of the cashew apple is very juicy, but the skin is fragile, making it unsuitable for transport. It is often used as a flavor in agua fresca.

The true fruit of the cashew tree is a kidney or boxing-glove shaped drupe that grows at the end of the pseudofruit. Actually, the drupe develops first on the tree, and then the peduncle expands into the pseudofruit. Within the true fruit is a single seed, the cashew nut. Although a nut in the culinary sense, in the botanical sense the fruit of the cashew is a seed. The seed is surrounded by a double shell containing a dermatogenic phenolic resin, urushiol, a potent skin irritant toxin also found in the related poison ivy. Some people are allergic to cashew nuts, but cashews are a less frequent allergen than nuts or peanuts.

Other names include: cajueiro, cashu, casho, acajuiba, caju, acajou, acaju, acajaiba, alcayoiba, anacarde, anacardier, anacardo, Andi parippu (in Malayalam), cacajuil, cajou, gajus, godambi (in Kannada), jeedi pappu (in Telugu), jocote maranon, maranon, merey, Mundhiri paruppu (Tamil), noix d’acajou, pomme cajou, pomme, jambu, jambu golok, jambu mete, jambu monyet, jambu terong, kasoy (Tagalog), and hạt điều in Vietnamese language. In the Antilles in Puerto Rico, it is known as pajuil, Indian nut in Slovenia, and in the Dominican Republic as the cajuil. The pseudofruit is the main part used as raw fruit.

Answered at 10:00 AM on November 22, 2008 | Read Comments [0]

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What does mean Brazil Nut in food? ?

Asked by Anuj Kumar in Food & Drink at 9:21 AM on November 22, 2008

Ram Singh's Answer

The Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) is a South American tree in the family Lecythidaceae, and also the name of the tree's commercially harvested edible seed.

The Brazil nut tree is the only species in the monotypic genus Bertholletia. It is native to the Guianas, Venezuela, Brazil, eastern Colombia, eastern Peru and eastern Bolivia. It occurs as scattered trees in large forests on the banks of the Amazon, Rio Negro, and the Orinoco. The genus is named after the French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet.

The Brazil nut is a large tree, reaching 30–45 metres (100–150 ft) tall and 1–2 metres (3–6.5 ft) trunk diameter, among the largest of trees in the Amazon Rainforests. It may live for 500 years or more, and according to some authorities often reaches an age of 1,000 years.[1] The stem is straight and commonly unbranched for well over half the tree's height, with a large emergent crown of long branches above the surrounding canopy of other trees. The bark is grayish and smooth. The leaves are dry-season deciduous, alternate, simple, entire or crenate, oblong, 20–35 centimetre long and 10–15 centimetres broad. The flowers are small, greenish-white, in panicles 5–10 centimetres long; each flower has a two-parted, deciduous calyx, six unequal cream-colored petals, and numerous stamens united into a broad, hood-shaped mass.

Brazil nut trees produce fruit almost exclusively in pristine forests, as disturbed forests lack the large-body bees of the genera Bombus, Centris, Epicharis, Eulaema, and Xylocopa which are the only ones capable of pollinating the tree's flowers.[2][3] Brazil nuts have been harvested from plantations but production is low and it is currently not economically viable.[4][5][6]
A freshly cut Brazil nut fruit

The Brazil nut tree's yellow flowers contain very sweet nectar and can only be pollinated by an insect strong enough to lift the coiled hood on the flower and with tongues long enough to negotiate the complex coiled flower. The orchids produce a scent that attracts small male long-tongued orchid bees (Euglossa spp), as the male bees need that scent to attract females. The large female long-tongued orchid bee pollinates the Brazil nut tree. Without the orchid, the bees do not mate, and therefore the lack of bees means the fruit does not get pollinated.

If both the orchids and the bees are present, the fruit takes 14 months to mature after pollination of the flowers. The fruit itself is a large capsule 10–15 centimetres diameter resembling a coconut endocarp in size and weighing up to 2 kilograms. It has a hard, woody shell 8–12 millimetres thick, and inside contains 8–24 triangular seeds 4–5 centimetres long (the "Brazil nuts") packed like the segments of an orange; it is not a true nut in the botanical sense.

The capsule contains a small hole at one end, which enables large rodents like the Agouti to gnaw it open. They then eat some of the nuts inside while burying others for later use; some of these are able to germinate to produce new Brazil nut trees. Most of the seeds are "planted" by the Agoutis in shady places, and the young saplings may have to wait years, in a state of dormancy, for a tree to fall and sunlight to reach it. It is not until then that it starts growing again. Capuchin monkeys have been reported to open Brazil nuts using a stone as an anvil.

Answered at 10:01 AM on November 22, 2008 | Read Comments [0]

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What does mean Pecan in food?

Asked by Anuj Kumar in Food & Drink at 9:31 AM on November 22, 2008

Ram Singh's Answer

Pecans are loaded with a lot of nutritious goodness. This is something that has remained non-debatable ever since the nut was discovered to be edible. New research about this really delicious tree nut has shown that they are rich in chemicals called antioxidants that in such a way, a daily serving of pecans is encouraged, as they help ward off a lot of disease. The good thing about eating pecans is that they can also help prevent heart disease, lower the cholesterol level, and can even prevent the dreaded life threatening cancer. Pecans are loaded with phytochemicals - a group of micronutrients that are found in plants - that includes plant sterols, flavonoids, and sulfur compounds.

The Ideal Diet Snack Food

Now much concern has been raised regarding the health benefits brought about by pecan nuts. But all have been answered, and more have been surprised that not only is the nut not harmful to one's health, it can even aid one face his weight problems. For people who are much concerned about losing weight or are anxious to go beyond their ideal weight, the best snack food for them are pecans. Pecans are low in carbohydrates, a very good source of protein that are easily digestible, and contain minimal sugar, low in saturated fat, and contain no trans fat. Compared to other snack foods, your pecan nut, when eaten in moderation, is definitely beyond compare in many terms. So instead of reaching out for that bag of chips while you're on a movie marathon with friends, get yourself some praline pecans or some roasted pecans treats and you sure are not only satisfying your sweet tooth cravings, you're also doing your health
one big favor.

Answered at 9:54 AM on November 22, 2008 | Read Comments [0]

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What does mean Macadamia in food?

Asked by Anuj Kumar in Food & Drink at 9:25 AM on November 22, 2008

Ram Singh's Answer

Macadamia is a genus of nine species of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae, with a disjunct distribution native to eastern Australia (seven species), New Caledonia (one species M. neurophylla) and Sulawesi in Indonesia (one species, M. hildebrandii).

They are small to large evergreen trees growing to 2–12 m tall. The leaves are arranged in whorls of three to six, lanceolate to obovate or elliptical in shape, 6–30 cm long and 2–13 cm broad, with an entire or spiny-serrated margin. The flowers are produced in a long slender simple raceme 5–30 cm long, the individual flowers 10–15 mm long, white to pink or purple, with four tepals. The fruit is a very hard woody globose follicle with a pointed apex, containing one or two seeds.

The genus is named after John Macadam, a colleague of botanist Ferdinand von Mueller, who first described the genus.[1] Common names include Macadamia, Macadamia nut, Queensland nut, Bush nut, Maroochi nut and bauple nut; Indigenous Australian names include gyndl, jindilli, and boombera.

Answered at 9:58 AM on November 22, 2008 | Read Comments [0]

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What does mean Coconut in food?

Asked by Anuj Kumar in Food & Drink at 9:23 AM on November 22, 2008

Ram Singh's Answer

The Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera) is a member of the Family Arecaceae (palm family). It is the only species in the genus Cocos, and is a large palm, growing to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4-6 m long, pinnae 60-90 cm long; old leaves break away cleanly leaving the trunk smooth. The term coconut refers to the nut of the coconut palm. An alternate spelling is cocoanut.

The coconut palm is grown throughout the tropical world, for decoration as well as for its many culinary and non-culinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm has some human uses.

The coconut has spread across much of the tropics, probably aided in many cases by seafaring peoples. The fruit is light and buoyant and presumably spread significant distances by marine currents. Fruits collected from the sea as far north as Norway have been found to be viable (and subsequently germinated under the right conditions). In the Hawaiian Islands, the coconut is regarded as a Polynesian introduction, first brought to the islands by early Polynesian voyagers from their homelands in the South Pacific. They are now ubiquitous to most of the planet between 26ºN and 26ºS.

The flowers of the coconut palm are polygamomonoecious, with both male and female flowers in the same inflorescence. Flowering occurs continuously, with female flowers producing seeds. Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although some dwarf varieties are self-pollinating.

Coconuts have made several appearances in entertainment, mostly in animated cartoons and films like Monty Python and the Holy Grail.

The origins of this plant are the subject of controversy, with most authorities claiming it is native to South Asia (particularly the Ganges Delta), while others claim its origin is in northwestern South America. Fossil records from New Zealand indicate that small, coconut-like plants grew there as long as 15 million years ago. Even older fossils have been uncovered in Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Kerala (Kerala means "land of coconut palms"), Maharashtra, (India) and the oldest known so far in Khulna, Bangladesh.

[edit] Cultivation
A coconut plantation on La Digue, Seychelles

The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of salinity. It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (1,500 to 2,500 mm annually), which makes colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward.[1] Coconuts also need high humidity (70–80%+) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity, like the Mediterranean, even where temperatures are high enough (regularly above 24°C). They are very hard to establish in dry climates and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated; fruit also tends to be shed.[1] They may grow but not fruit properly in areas where there is not sufficient warmth, like Bermuda.
Coconut and copra output in 2005
A man climbing a palm to harvest coconuts. Behind the palm a young plant is visible.

Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are intolerant of cold weather. Optimum growth is with a mean annual temperature of 27°C(80.6°F), and growth is reduced below 21°C(69.8°F). Some seasonal variation is tolerated, with good growth where mean summer temperatures are between 28–37 °C (82.4-98.6 °F), and survival as long as winter temperatures are above 4–12 °C (39.2-53.6 °F); they will survive brief drops to 0 °C(32°F). Severe frost is usually fatal, although they have been known to recover from temperatures of -4 °C(24.8°F).[1]

Plant densities in Vanuatu for copra production are generally 9 meter, allowing a tree density of 100-160 trees per hectare.

[edit] Pests and diseases

Answered at 10:00 AM on November 22, 2008 | Read Comments [0]

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What does mean Peanut in food?

Asked by Anuj Kumar in Food & Drink at 9:26 AM on November 22, 2008

Ram Singh's Answer

Throughout history, peanuts have been known by many names. They include groundnuts, goobers, pinders, mani and ground peas. Peanuts are not actually nuts. They are members of the legume family. George Washington Carver is known as the "Father of the Peanut Industry." He discovered about 300 different uses for the peanut. Carver probed that the peanut could be used for such diverse products as shaving cream, polish, soap, paint, shampoo, medicine, ink, linoleum, rubber, cosmetics, bleach, wallboard, kitty litter, paper and even explosives.

Peanuts are packed will fiber, vitamins and minerals. Peanuts are a rich source of "resveratrol," a plant compound that many scientists believe may help reduce the risks of heart disease and cancer. One pound of peanuts has more nutritional value and calories than one pound of beef. Approximately half of a peanut seed is oil.

Peanut butter was first made in South America more than 3,000 years ago. The peanut butter we eat to day is said to have been invented in 1890 but a St. Louis physician who was trying to create a healthy food for his patients. About one half of all edible peanuts produced in North America are used to make peanut butter and peanut spreads. It takes about 700 peanuts to make one average size jar of peanut butter.

Answered at 9:56 AM on November 22, 2008 | Read Comments [0]

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